Abkhazia - Republic of Abkhazia

Ancient Abkhazia
Abkhazia's history has millennia-old roots. The fertile lands of Abkhazia were actively settled in the late Paleolithic Age, 35 thousand years ago. Mesolithic settlements founded in the 12000-7000 BC have been unearthed. People had settled in caves near rivers, and engaged in fishing and gathering, as testified by the bone harpoons and fish bones found near their dwellings.
In the Neolithic Age, approximately 6000-4000 BC, man begins making clay pottery and constructing the first man-made dwellings. People begin to farm the land and tame animals. At the turn of 4000-3000 BC, the inhabitants of Abkhazia were already fashioning metal tools, first out of copper and then bronze. At the end of 3000 and the beginning of 2000 BC, they began building Dolmen tombs. The stone tombs can be found throughout Abkhazian territory, with the highest concentration in the area of Otkhara village (Gudauta district), where 15 tombs weighing 60 to 110 tons have been found. In the late Bronze Age entombments, archeologists have found bronze axes, spearheads, and various jewelry and pottery.

The First Cities
In VIII century BC, the Abkhaz coast of the Black Sea began to be settled by seafarers from mainland Greece. They founded the first cities in peaceful, convenient bays in VI-I centuries BC: Dioscurias (modern-day Sukhum), Pitiunt (Pitsunda), Triglite (Gagra), Gyenos (Ochamchira), and others. Soon these colony towns became cultural and historical centers on the Black Sea coast, where various handicrafts flourished and trading was active.
The Romans replaced the Greeks and strengthened their positions in Abkhazia in the 1st century AD, in the times of Roman Emperor Augustus. It is then that the antique Dioscuriada received the new name of Sebastopolis.

Early Christianity
According to a Christian legend, in 55 AD, Jesus Christ's disciples, the Apostles Simon the Zealot and Andrew came to Abkhazia to preach Christianity. Simon the Zealot died a martyr's death on the banks of River Psyrtskha and was buried there.
Christianity came to Abkhazia with Roman soldiers, of whom three cohorts (a cohort is a troop of up to 500 warriors) were quartered in Pitiunt, Sebastopolis and Ziganis (today, Gudava village of Ochamchira district). By late 3rd-early 4th century, Pitiunt was home to the oldest Christian commune in Caucasus. In 325 AD, Stratophilus, the Bishop of Pitiunt, represented it at the First Council of Nicaea.
In the beginning of the 4th century, Abkhazia came under the dominion of the Byzantine Empire. At this point in time, Apsyls, Abazgs, and Misiminians had formed a tribal union, and feudal relationships began to surface in the societal structure. The conversion to Christianity in 548 AD further contributed to the development of feudalism.

Battle of Anacopia
At the end of VII century in Western Transcaucasia invaded Arabs. They reached Apsilia and placed their garrisons.In 738 AD, Arabs under the leadership of Mervan Kru (Mervan the Deaf) invaded Abkhazia. They destroyed many fortresses and the seashore side of the Abkhazian Wall, occupied Tskhum (modern-day Sukhum), but were defeated near the walls of Anacopia (modern-day Novy Afon) and fled from Abkhazia.
Marwan army was like “a dark cloud of locusts and mosquitoes”, it was greater than forces of Anakopia. This inequality was offset by the capacity of walls of the Anakopia fortress. Its southern wall, which length is 450 m, was equipped with seven towers of a quadrangular and semicircular shape. These towers spaced at a distance of 30-50 m. The walls and towers had catapults or other propelling machinery to cover the enemy with arrows and stones. Behind the round many-tiered angle tower were carefully protected gate. Between the towers were wickets through which the defenders made their sorties.But the most of Arab men have died of epidemic cholera. So Mervan had to retreat.

Abkhazian Kingdom
At the end of the 8th century, an early feudal state had formed on Abkhazian territory: the Abkhazian Kingdom, populated by Adygh, Abkhaz, and Georgian tribes. The borders of the kingdom stretched from the modern-day Tuapse to Surami Pass. In the 9th century Georgian chronicles, this event, momentous for Transcaucasia, is described as follows: "When the Greeks weakened, the Eristavi [Duke] named Leon, the nephew of Eristavi Leon who was given Abkhazia as his barony, seceded from them. This second Leon was the son of the daughter of the Khazar Tsar, and (using) their (the Khazars') strength, he seceded from the Greeks, seized Abkhazia, and named himself the King of the Abkhaz." This early on, the Abkhazian Kingdom had already received "international recognition." Leon II moved the capital from Anacopia (modern-day New Athos) to Kutaisi. Economy and culture prospered in the Abkhazian Kingdom, and palaces, temples, and architectural ensembles were erected.
Abkhazian Kingdom flourished for 200 years. Its fall began with the death of the childless King Theodosius the Blind. Abkhazia became a part of the united Georgian state. In the 13th century, the breakdown of the "kingdom of Abkhaz and Kartlians (Georgians)" into separate principalities began.

Italians in Abkhazia
In the second half of the 13th century, a Genoese merchant fleet showed up in Abkhazian coastal waters. Genoese trading posts (factorias) were established in many places in Abkhazia: Gacary (modern-day Gagra), Pezonda (modern-day Pitsunda), Cavo di Buxo (modern-day Gudauta), Nicoffa (modern-day New Athos), Sevastopoli or San-Sebastian (modern-day Sukhum), Cavo Zizibar (near modern-day Adzyubzha), San Tommaso (modern-day Tamish), and others. Sevastopoli was the central Genoese settlement and served as the residence of the head of all Italian settlements in the Caucasus. The Genoese were mainly preoccupied with trade, and the most important commodity shipped through Black Sea ports from the Orient to Western Europe was silk. Three Transcaucasian offshoots of the Silk Road lay through Abkhazia, connecting Genoa with the Golden Horde.

Principality of Abkhazia and Turkey
In the second half of the 15th century, after Constantinople had been seized by Turks, the Turkish navy arrived in Abkhazia, and a short while later, the Genoese left the Black Sea Coast. By that time, Abkhazia was ruled by the Shervashidze (Chachba) family, who were striving to free themselves from the influence of Mingrelian rule. The internal war between Abkhazian and Mingrel feudal lords lasted 30 years. At the end of it, a state border was established between Abkhaz and Kartvelians along the Inguri River, and more than 300 years later, it remains in its place.
In the first half of the 17th century, Turks besieged Sevastopoli from the sea. Abkhaz feudal lords were forced to agree to pay tribute. In 1634, Turkish troops disembarked near Kodori Cape. The Turks devastated and ransacked the territory and imposed tribute on the feudal lords. In 1724, the Turks built a fortress on the Sevastopoli shore and named it Sohumkale. That also became the name of the town. Political and economic contacts with the Ottoman Empire led to the spread of Islam across Abkhazian territory.
In the beginning of the 18th century, during the rule of Kelesh-Bey Chachba (Shervashidze), the Principality of Abkhazia once again strengthened its positions and its navy began controlling the Black Sea coast from Anapa to Batum.

Abkhazia Under Russian Protection
In the 19th century, Russia and Turkey were at war, each trying to strengthen its foothold on the Black Sea coast. In July 1810, Russian navy took Sohumkale fortress by storm. Abkhazia, with the exception of free highlander communities, was annexed to Russia. 1810 is considered to be the year when Abkhazia first came under Russian protection. In the same year, up to five thousand Abkhaz moved to Turkey. It was the first migration wave in the 19th century.
One of the distinguishing traits of the Principality of Abkhazia was that it, unlike Georgia, did not completely lose its sovereignty despite when it was annexed to Russia. From 1810 to 1864, the Principality of Abkhazia kept its autonomous rule within Russian Empire and lasted longer than others in the Caucasus.
In June 1864, the Principality of Abkhazia was abolished and renamed into the Sukhum Military District of the Russian Empire. On the eve of the abolishment of the Principality of Abkhazia, Caucasus Governor Michael Romanov presented his plan for colonizing the east coast of the Black Sea. Alexander II approved the plan to give the stretch from the mouth of the Kuban River to Inguri River to Cossacks for settling. At this time, nearly all Ubykh and Sadz people resettled in Turkey (up to 45 thousand people and 20 thousand people, respectively).

Muhajirism and the "Guilt" of the Abkhaz
In 1866, a revolt broke out in Lykhny village and spread all the way to Sukhum. The main cause of public resentment was the preparations underway for a peasant reform. Russian officials did not take into account the local attitudes in a country in which, unlike Russia, Georgia, and the neighboring Mingrelia, there had been no serfdom. After the rebellion was smashed, Abkhazia was punished with purge after purge, followed by complete disarmament of the population, up to having their daggers requisitioned. Those who had taken part in the mutiny were exiled by Tsar's government to extremely inclement areas in Northern Russia and Siberia. In April-June of 1867, approximately 20 thousand people became muhajir, or forced migrants to Turkey.
The siding of the Abkhaz with the Turks in the course of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 resulted in political repressions. For participating in this rebellion, Abkhaz were declared to be a "guilty" population, and were placed into penal servitude and sent into exile to remote Russian provinces. In 1877, the muhajir movement, i.e. mass migration of Abkhaz to Turkey, reached its peak: another 50,000 native people had left Abkhazia. The country was basically deserted to be resettled by other peoples, primarily Georgians (mainly Mingrels), as well as Russians, Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Estonians, and Germans. Thus, whereas in 1886, the Abkhaz had made up 85.7% of Abkhazia's population, in 1897 they comprised only 55.3%.

New Times and Soviet Government in Abkhazia
In the second half of the 19th century, Abkhazia still occupied an in-between position between democratic free highlander communities of the Northwestern Caucasus and Georgia's feudal system. Yet, in spirit, its social structure was closer to the Cherkesso-Ubykh social order.
After the Russian Empire fell apart, Abkhazia joined the Union of the People of North Caucasus and the Southeastern Union. On November 8, 1917, at a congress of Abkhaz people, the first parliament was elected, the Abkhaz People's Council, which adopted a Constitution and Declaration of the Abkhaz people.
On March 4, 1921, Bolsheviks pronounced Abkhazia under Soviet rule and announced it to be a new Soviet Socialist Republic. On February 19, 1931, at the 6th All-Georgian Council Congress in Tbilisi, a decision was made to restructure the Abkhazian Soviet Socialist Republic into an autonomous republic incorporated into the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.

National Liberation Movement On the Rise
Before the falling apart of the Soviet Union, when the national liberation movement was on the rise in all republics, Abkhazia was fighting for a higher administrative status. Georgia's parliament began to unilaterally pass resolutions (acts of 1989-1990) that ignored the intergovernmental nature of the relationship between Abkhazia and Georgia, and, in essence, led to the abolishment of Abkhazian national identity.
In order to overcome the lack of legal regulation between the republics, on July 23, 1992, Abkhazia's Supreme Council passed the resolution to restore to effect Abkhazia's Constitution of 1925 on Abkhazian territory, and adopted a new Flag and Coat of Arms for the Republic of Abkhazia.

Civil War
On August 14, 1992, Georgia, which had just joined the UN, had launched a war against Abkhazia. Georgian troops, including aviation, armored troops, and artillery, invaded Abkhazia and occupied part of its territory. In addition to physical extermination of people living in Abkhazia, cultural genocide was also performed. Abkhazian historical and cultural monuments were destroyed, and most valuable historical documents, linguistic materials, rare books and manuscripts had perished.
On September 30, 1993, the entire territory of Abkhazia was finally freed from occupation. Victory came at a high price: approximately 3000 people gave their lives for Abkhazia's freedom and independence.

Abkhazia Today
On November 26, 1994, Abkhazian Parliament adopted Abkhazia's new Constitution, and Vladislav G. Ardzinba was elected as the country's first president.
From December 1994 until September 1999, Abkhazia and its people were subjected to political, economic, and informational blockade. Yet despite the complications of the post-war time, the country's economy, culture, sciences, education, and resort business began to recover. In October 1999, Abkhazia's multinational population, in the course of a country-wide vote, voted for the declaration of Abkhazia's independence, passing an according state law.
On August 26, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed state decrees recognizing Abkhazia's independence. In September 2008, Abkhazia was recognized by Nicaragua and Venezuela, in December 2009 by Nauru.
History of Christianity in Abkhazia.
Christianity arrived in Abkhazia in the 1st century together with the first Christian missionaries, apostles Andrew the First-Called and Simon the Zealot, who arrived here through Cappadocia and the coastal town of Trabzon. They preached their way from the southern coast of the Black Sea to Sebastopolis (now known as Sukhum). Here they parted ways. Andrew the First-Called moved on, and Simon the Zealot (also known as Simon the Zealot) remained in Abkhazia and preached Christianity here. In 55, during the persecution of Christians under Emperor Diocletian, Simon the Zealot was killed by Roman legionaries on the shore of the Psyrdzhi River (currently the site of Novy Afon). In the 9th-10th centuries a temple was built in his honor at the site of his burial. This temple is still standing and is currently active.
According to religious scholars, six apostles have visited the eastern shore of the Black Sea. Five of the original twelve - Andrew, Simon, Matthew, Bartholomew and Judas, and one of the seventy - Thaddeus.

Festival of classical music

Every year at the beginning of autumn in Abkhazia passes festival of classical music "Hibla Gerzmava invites", which is the main cultural event of a year. The best Russian collectives act in the towns of Pitsunda and Sukhum, and also in the concerts of classical music take part the gifted Abkhazian performers. The inspirer and organizer of festival is a brilliant opera singer, the People's Artist of Abkhazia and Honored Artist of Russia, the winner of many Russian and international contests of vocalists, Hibla Gerzmava. The government of Abkhazia actively assists in holding of festivals which already became a kind tradition.

The festival was born in 2001. On a stage of Pitsunda Cathedral and the Abkhazian State Philharmonic acted Elena Obraztsova, Vladimir Spivakov, actors of the Moscow Musical Theatre named after Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, the Daniel Kramer's trio, the Kazan state orchestra "La Primavera" and other known Russian collectives. The presenter of many concerts within the bounds of festival was Sviatoslav Belza.

Endemics of Abkhazia.
History of study of the Abkhazian endemic flora

For the first time a unique flora of Northern Kolkhida opened the Russian botanist N.M Albov and after that he began its systematic study. From 1888 during the seven years he annually made botanical trips to Northern Kolkhida. As a result of processing of vast amount of material Albov described 76 new, precinctive to Kolkhida species, 45 of which were of limestones, and more than 15 of them were precinctive to Abkhazia.After N.M. Albov in pre-revolutionary period, a considerable contribution to the study of the limestone flora of Northern Kolkhida and, particularly, Abkhazia introduced Y.N. Voronov. He partly explored the Bzyb Gorge and Gagra limestone massif. Voronov collected thousands of herbarium specimens. Altogether, he described about 20 new species and combinations of Kolkhida, 7 of them were of limestone of Abkhazia.
In Soviet period, during the first years of the Abkhazian Research Institute of Local History the botanist S.P Petyaev collected herbarium, containing endemic species from limestone of Abkhazia. These collections became the foundation to create a herbarium of Kolkhida flora in the Sukhum botanical garden. The floristically luxuriant group of regions was recognized Gagra-Bzyb region.

Abkhazia – the unique floristic area

Thus, the originality of the natural growth and flora of Abkhazia is evident. It is related to a specific geographic location, and with the physical-geographical features of the territory. Gagra and Bzyb limestone massifs of the total area, raised above the forest zone, are far surpassing all limestone massifs of the Northern Kolkhida. The endemic luxuriance of small territory of Abkhazia tells us about the peculiarity of mountain floras of different regions of the Caucasus.
So, within the floristic region “Abkhazia”, A.A.Grossgeim identified 82 endemic species, which forms the basic floral group of endemics of Northern Kolkhida. The ecology of endemic flora of Abkhazia has studied, and about half of the endemics were confined to the lower forest belt and a little less than half - to the alpine zone. More than 60% of endemic species has a relatively narrow natural habitat. This is a valuable gene pool that reflects the peculiarities of the ancient flora of Abkhazia and supportive relationship with the natural and historical past.
Culture of Abkhazia.
From the earliest of times, a distinctive culture began evolving in Abkhazia. The warmth and mildness of the climate and the fertility of the land had defined the Abkhaz way of life. Thus, the ancient Abkhaz were mainly preoccupied with farming, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and handicrafts. While defending their land from enemy attacks or fighting wars, the Abkhaz also developed combat and weapon-making skills.
Abkhazian culture is based on a folk ethical principle called apsuara, which means "being Abkhazian". Professor Sh. D. Inal-Ipa, a well-known Abkhazian ethnologist, defines apsuara as a traditionally shaped way of expressing the national conscience, an unwritten code of ethnic lore that describes the Abkhaz people's entire system of customs, beliefs and principles.

Abkhaz sagas and legends demonstrate the people's archaic beliefs about the Creation of the World and the role of the gods. Abkhaz Nartic sagas tell the story of the life and heroic deeds of the Narts, a hundred brothers and their mother, Satanaya-Guasha.
Abkhaz Language and Literature

Abkhaz is the official language of the Republic of Abkhazia and one of the most ancient languages in the world. Together with Abazin, Adygean, Kabardian and Circassian languages, it belongs to the Abkhaz-Adyg group, which today encompasses several million people.

As the common Abkhaz language was being formed, several dialects developed due to the feudal division of the country.
In 1862, P. K. Uslar, a linguist and researcher of Caucasian culture, published a work on Abkhaz grammar and created the Abkhaz alphabet based on the Russian Cyrillic script. D. I. Gulia, considered to be the founding father of Abkhaz fiction and the creator of the Abkhaz literary language, published the first lyrical epic poem in Abkhaz in 1913.

Abkhaz literary language evolved actively during Soviet time, as the language of the nation underwent a formative stage. Over a relatively short time, the vocabulary of the written language expanded greatly by borrowing from the native dialects and foreign languages.
As time went on and the use of written Abkhaz widened, a variety of writing styles developed: business writing, scientific writing, journalistic writing, and above all literary language, the language of fiction. Traditional Abkhaz oral poetic narrative played an enormous role in the formation and evolution of the Abkhaz literary language, as did works by Abkhaz writers, poets and playwrights, such as Dmitry Gulia, Samson Chanba, Iua Kogonia, Bagrat Shinkuba, Ivan Papaskiri, and Alexei Gogua.
Music and Dance

Traditional Abkhazian musical instruments include strings, woodwinds, and percussion. Among the most popular string instruments is the ap'hyartsa, a two-stringed instrument with a narrow spindle-shaped frame, played with a bow and usually carved from alder wood. The ayumaa is a triangular harp with 14 horsehair strings (ayumaa means "two-handed" because the musician holds it on one knee while playing with both hands).
The woodwinds include the acharpyn, a flute with three or sometimes six holes made of hogweed (acharpyn in Abkhaz) and adorned with ornamental decoration. Another popular instrument is the abyk, a single-reed horn carved from wingnut wood. The akabak khtsvy, a shepherd's pipe with three openings, is carved from a pumpkin stem.
Percussion includes various types of drums and clappers (also used to scare birds away from corn fields). Akyapkyap clappers consist of a thick handle with attached wooden slats that make a loud crackling noise when rotated, and the very popular adaul drum often serves as the main musical accompaniment, especially for folk dances.

Dancing is the most popular form of folk performance in Abkhazia. There are several professional dance troupes in the country and several choreography studios for children. The troupes perform folk dances, ritual dances with daggers and burkas (traditional coats with high, squared-off shoulders), and other traditional Caucasian dances.
Clothing

Traditional clothes are an important element of Abkhazian culture. In the past, people dressed in accordance with their occupation, and divided their clothes into everyday clothing, clothes for festive occasions, and ritual dress.
The chokha (or cherkeska) is the oldest and, even to this day, the most popular article of traditional male clothing. It was traditionally worn with trousers, a shirt with a button-up collar and a pair of rawhide shoes or, for special occasions, custom-decorated goatskin shoes. Spats or felt stockings were worn over the calves, and knee pads over the knees. The curiously shaped bashlyk served as the traditional men's head gear.
A must-have for every Abkhaz horseman was the burka (auapa in Abkhaz), a long cape with high square shoulders that was made of shaggy felt and made the silhouette look almost regal.

The traditional women's costume consisted of several key items: a dress with a short or long tunic coat worn over it, a shirt, two underskirts, a pair of trousers, and a hat or a head scarf. A decorative sash, worn around the waist on top of all the layers, was often a genuine work of art. The short tunic coat was usually made of homespun broadcloth or velvet; it fit tightly in the chest area and widened below the waist.

The alabasha, a tough wooden staff with a metal foot and a hook on top, was a symbolic element of traditional appearance. A walking stick that doubled as the simplest weapon, it would also serve as a sort of a "soap box" for someone about to make a speech: if an elder dug his staff into the ground and leaned on it, it was a sign that he was about to speak.
Climate and Weather
Abkhazian natural heritage is magnificent and diverse, unique in its fascinating, harmonious combination of the scenery of the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea coast. A stretch only fifty kilometers wide between the shoreline and the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range encompasses all existing climactic zones, from rainforest to perennial snow and glaciers.
The average annual temperature is +15°С. Abkhazian winters are the warmest in all of Caucasus. Snowfall is rare, and the average temperature in January rarely falls below +7°С. In the summer, the average temperature is +27 to 28°С. At Gagra resort, the highest average temperature during the hottest month of the year is +24.5°С.
Average annual rainfall is approximately 1400 mm. Average relative atmospheric humidity in Sukhum is 72%. The number of hours of sunshine in the republic's capital is 2238 hours a year, with maximum hours in the summer (812) and minimum in the winter (317).

Abkhazia's Mountains and Caves
Nearly all of Abkhazia's territory is occupied by tall mountain ranges. Greater Caucasus mountain range on Abkhazia's northwestern border, near the source of Auadhara River, rises 2500 meters above sea level, while on Abkhazia's eastern border, the altitude of the mountain ranges reaches 3500-4000 meters. The highest point in Abkhazia is Mount Dombai-Ulgen, reaching 4048 meters above sea level. In order of receding height, other impressive mountains in Abkhazia are Gvandra (3984 m), Ertsog (3909 m), Psysh (3790 m), Ptysh (3465 m), Agepsta (3256 m), and Khimsa (3032 m).
There are 14 mountain passes in the Greater Caucasus range that lie within Abkhazia's borders, at altitudes ranging from 2300 to 3000 m above sea level. Most of these passes are difficult to access, and are closed for travel most of the year. In centuries past, travel routes through Klukhori Pass, situated on the Sukhumi Military Road, and Marukh Pass were actively used as a link to countries on the other side of Greater Caucasus.
Two vast limestone massifs on Abkhazian territory are especially significant: Gagra mountain range (highest elevation: Arabika, 2656 m) and Bzyb mountain range (highest elevation: Napra, 2684 m). The limestone bulk of these ranges is home to Earth's deepest known caves: Krubera (Voronya, or Crow's) Cave, with explored depth of 2080 m, Sarma Cave (1543 m), V. Pantyukhin's Cave in the Gagra mountain range (1480 m), Snezhnaya (Snowy) Cave in the Bzyb mountain range (1370 m), and New Athos (Novoafonskaya) Cave, with a colossal volume of 1.5 million cubic meters.

Abkhazia's Rivers
The perennial snows crowning Abkhazia's mountaintops year-round are spread out over an area of 77 km. sq. Over the summer, the snows melt partially, filling the river beds of Abkhazia's many streams with the purest water. There are approximately 120 rivers, 186 mountain lakes, and 170 mineral springs in Abkhazia. It's an interesting fact that, despite Abkhazia's small size, all of its rivers in their entirety, from source to mouth, together with their basins, and with the exception of the two border rivers, are completely contained within the country.
Abkhazia's most famous mineral water is Auadhara, flowing from a spring in Auadhara river valley. Hot springs in Primorskoye village (Gudaut District) and Kyndug village (Ochamchyr District) are also widely popular.
Abkhazia's portion of the Black Sea coast is renowned for its wide pebble and sand beaches and pure sea water. The coastline is 210 km long. The composition of the sea water is rich and diverse, containing approximately 60 various mineral salts, although Black Sea water salinity is half that of the Mediterranean. The Black Sea is home to approximately 250 species of seaweed, 180 species of fish, more than 200 species of crustaceans, several species of jellyfish, shrimp, crabs, and three dolphin species, a list that doesn't begin to sum up all of its animal and plant life.

Abkhazia's Plant Life
Abkhazia's plant life is represented by approximately 3500 species, 180 of which are trees and shrubs, more than 500 species are medicinal plants, and more than 600 are relict species preserved from ancient geographical epochs. About 400 plant species are endemic for Caucasus, and more than 100 species are found nowhere outside of Abkhazia. The species distribution area for some of the endemic species is no larger than just a few dozen square meters, such as, for instance, Campanula Paradoxa bellflowers from the Bzyb River Gorge, or Aquilegia Gegica columbines growing on the walls of the Gega Waterfall.
466 thousand hectares (52% of the country's territory) is covered with forest, which is home to more than 30 valuable species, including relict yew, Greek strawberry tree, and others.

Abkhazia's Animal Life
There are 440 species of vertebrates and 277 bird species in Abkhazia.
Abkhazia's lakes, streams, and sea are populated by great sturgeon, common sturgeon, Black Sea salmon, Pontic shad, five species of mullet, European plaice, Atlantic horse mackerel, spiny dogfish, mullets, European anchovies, and other fish species. A considerable amount of Black Sea salmon is spawned in Abkhazia's pure streams. Salmon and brown trout are the most traditionally and widely fished species.
One of major bird migration routes on the Eurasian continent lies above Abkhazia. There are 294 bird species registered here, including rare and endangered species: golden eagle, bearded vulture, cinereous vulture, peregrine falcon, great white pelican, swan, great egret, and others.
Abkhazia's predators include the brown bear, wolf, jackal, fox, lynx, marten, badger, otter, a Caucasus subspecies of the European mink, and least weasel. Besides the West Caucasian tur, other ungulates, or hoofed animals, include red deer, roe deer, and chamois. Wild boars are also rather common.
Abkhazia's many caves are home to approximately 24 species of bats. Endemic invertebrates deserve special attention. For instance, the Novy Afon cave is the only place where the cave-dwelling Troglocaris shrimp and the cave-dwelling Jeannelius ground beetle are found.
Vast conservation areas have been created in Abkhazia to preserve its wildlife: Ritsa-Auadhara National Park, and Pskhu-Gumista and Pitsunda-Myussersky nature reserves. Altogether, no less than 10% of the country's area is protected, one of the highest percentages in the world.
Novy Afon Cave
The capacity of the giant Novy Afon karst cave system is 3 million cubic meters, and it is in itself a complicated set of labyrinths. It was discovered by a Novy Afon artist, Givi Smyr. He was the first person to take the risk of going down into the crevice that the locals stayed away from for decades.
The cave was open for tourists in 1975. The trail inside is about 2 kilometers long and passes through 6 giant halls lavishly decorated with stalactites and stalagmites. The temperature inside the cave system never goes above or below 11 degrees Centigrade.

Anacopia Fortress.
On top of Mt. Apsara, looming high above Novy Afon, stands Anacopia Fortress, an ancient Abkhazian citadel. Built in the 2nd-4th centuries AD, the fortress has walls of hewn stone blocs, up to 60 cm thick, fitted tightly together. The only entrance was a small gate in the south side, built from three giant blocs of hewn limestone. The fortress' main fortification was a rectangular Roman tower four stories high, from which all of the surrounding area could be watched.
Anacopia's church, built in the center of the fortress sometime no later than the 8th century, was a single-apse basilica made of roughly hewn blocks of limestone and beach gravel. The altar has been partially preserved, and the frescoes of fishes (an ancient Christian symbol), a lion, a cross, and some inscriptions in Greek can still be seen.

A cistern, hewn 1500 years ago in the mountainside next to the church, is always filled with the purest water. Researchers have found a 1 m wide, 25 cm deep depression at the bottom of the cistern, through which the water, most likely coming from a karst spring, filters into the cistern.

An ancient burial ground in Anacopia was discovered to contain, alongside human remains, metal swords, daggers, and pikes. Between 300 and 400 AD, Anacopian craftsmen, in addition to weaponry, produced farming tools, jewelry, and decorations (rings, bracelets, glass necklaces, figurines, etc.). In the 4th century AD, Anacopia was a major town in southeastern Abkhazia, later becoming the seat of Abkhazia's rulers.

In the 8th century AD, Abkhazia's ruler Leon I took residence in the fortress, and Anacopia became the capital of Abkhazian Kingdom; Leon I led the defense of Anacopia during the Arab invasion, and defeated the Arab army led by the infamous warlord Mervan Kru (Mervan the Deaf). After taking such a whipping, the Arabs never made another attempt to invade Abkhazia.

Anacopia Fortress underwent restoration in 2008. The watch tower was restored as a lookout point. The slopes of Mt. Apsara and the road to the fortress were cleaned up and made safe.

Cuisine
Abkhazian cuisine was shaped by the agricultural, climatic and economical factors of the area. Because the Abkhaz were mainly farmers and cattle-breeders, their basic dietary staples were corn, millet, and dairy products. In the past, wild game and edible plants growing in the wild were a significant part of the diet, but today they are rarely on the table.

One Abkhazian staple dish is mamalyga (abysta), or corn meal boiled in water with no salt added. Its high starch, vitamin B1, and fiber content makes it a very healthy food. There is a number of variations on mamalyga, such as mamalyga with soft fresh cheese (ayladzh), or mamalyga with milk and cheese (achamykva). Corn meal is also used to make amgyal flatbread and a type of sweet called atsvyrtsma. Freshly gathered corn on the cob is another staple, boiled, fried or roasted over an open fire. Wheat flour is less widely used, mainly for cheese pies (achash, or khachapur) and cheese dumplings.
Fresh cheese (ashvlaguan) and a local type of yogurt (ahartsvy, or matsoni) make up the dairy diet staples.

Meat and Vegetables.
Meat and poultry is traditionally boiled or roasted in big chunks, with grilling being by far the most popular method. Stock is not traditionally used in Abkhazian cuisine, and soups in general are not part of it.
A staple vegetable dish, usually served with mamalyga, is made of seasoned beans (akud). Walnuts are a common ingredient in vegetable dishes. Another local favorite, a type of salad called achapa, involves chopping up cooked green beans, cabbage, beet greens, stinging nettles, sarsaparilla, etc., and seasoning the mix with chopped walnuts, adjika sauce, and spices. A separate vegetable platter can always be found on the table: in the summer, it'll include fresh tomatoes, cucumbers and green onions, while a wintertime platter will feature pickled gherkins, kohlrabi, tomatoes, artichokes, radishes, etc. Fresh greens, such as parsley, dill, cilantro, and garden cress, are also a must-have addition to every meal.

Adjika and Spices

Adjika is the best known condiment of traditional Abkhazian cuisine, popular in Russia and abroad. This fragrant, spicy paste-like relish is added to virtually all dishes, resulting in distinctive flavor. The basic ingredient of adjika is red pepper with the addition of garlic and various herbs. It is known to improve digestion.
Spicy berry-based sauces and relishes are also a big part of Abkhazian cuisine. Made of cherry plums, barberries, blackberries, or tomatoes, and flavored with adjika and herbs, they are served with mamalyga and meat.

Beverages and Wine

Honey has been cultivated and eaten in Abkhazia since the ancient times. A traditional honey-based drink, atshadzyua, was widely used as a folk remedy against various diseases.
Among locally produced spirits are red and white wine and grape vodka called chacha. Even today practically every Abkhazian farm makes its own wine and chacha.
Winemaking developed in Abkhazia several thousand years ago (i.e. 3000-2000 BC), as evidenced by archeological finds of jugs containing grape seeds in Abkhazian dolmen tombs. Prince Nicolas Achba is considered to be the founder of modern commercial winemaking. Abkhazian wines, such as Bouquet of Abkhazia, Psou, Lykhny, Apsny, and Anacopia, found wide renown and are produced in Abkhazia to this day.

The winegrowing in Abkhazia.
Favorite work of Abkhazian farmers

Abkhazia is one of the recognized centers of winegrowing culture. Favorable geographic and climatic conditions contributed to the spreading of wild sorts of grape in the territory of Abkhazia. The Main Caucasian mountain ridge protects Abkhazia from the northern air masses in winter and from hot withering winds from Central Asia in summer, which is creating a mild subtropical climate.
Besides, the sun warms the blankets of the Black Sea in spring and summer, and in autumn and winter the sea water emits the heat energy, warming the surrounding to the coast area.
The beginning of grapes cultivation on the Abkhaz land belongs to the Bronze Age, as evidenced the bronze statuette of a man with a horn obtained in the central Abkhazia. Perhaps it is connected with the tradition of Abkhazians to drink wine from the horn.
By the XIX century, viticulture reached its peak, taking an important place among the occupations of Abkhaz farmers. The officer of Russian army F.F.Tornau in his "Memoirs of the Caucasian officer" in 1864 noted the “solid grapes planting”. Abandoned lands, which the colonists inherited after Muhajirism, were quite often covered with vineyards.
In the middle of the XIX century, the vineyards suffered considerable damage to fungal diseases. Nevertheless, were saved dozens of sorts of Abkhazian grapes: black, pink and white. Each sort had its functionality. Some sorts were exclusively the table sorts, others - the wine sorts, others were used for color, flavor, strength and taste of wines.

The Abkhazian wines nowadays

In the 1990\'s the winemaking tradition of Abkhazia began to revive. The high end winery was built in Abkhazia, and the wine-making technology was improved which is response to the world standards. Assortment of vintage Abkhaz wines enriched by new varieties: \'Amra, "Radeda", "Dioskuria", "Pitsunda", "Eshera", "Apostolic Afon." And nowadays Abkhaz wines receive the gold and silver medals at the international exhibitions and competitions.
Pitsunda Cathedral.
The cathedral, consecrated in the name of St. Andrew the Apostle, was built in late 10th-early 11th century and had served as the cathedral church for Abkhazia's bishops. It is a cross-domed cathedral with three naves and three apses, shaped as a rectangle with extending semicircular apses. The cathedral is notable for its impressive size, reaching 29 m high (including the dome), 37 m long and 25 m wide; the walls are up to 1.5 m thick. The building rests on heavy slabs of grey sandstone; the walls are made up of alternating rows of stone and brickwork, a typical technique for late Byzantine architecture. The spaces between the tall narrow windows underneath the dome were initially covered with frescoes of the twelve Apostles. Fragments of ten frescoes survive to this day.

Inside the cathedral, there is no architectural décor; its beauty is in its proportions that create a space filled with air and light. In the west end of the narthex, there is a small shrine with the tombs of St. Andrew the Apostle and Simon the Zealot.

By mid-10th century AD, Pitsunda cathedral became the cathedral church of Abkhazian Catholicoi. In the late 1800s, it was renovated, reconsecrated in the name of the Repose of the Virgin Mary, and made part of the New Athos monastery.

The cathedral's remarkable acoustics and pipe organ (installed in 1975) make it a popular site for classical music concerts.